Definitional Techniques(continued)

Intensional(Connotative)Definitions: is a definition which gives meaning to a word by associating with it qualities or attributes that the word implies. There are four knds of intentional definitions, synonymous definition, etymological definition, operational definition, and definitions by genus and difference. These definitions are used mostley to create only lexical definitions, because with this type of definition the definiendum must already have a meaning, or else the synonym cant be found.
1. Synonymous definition: is a definition in which the definiens describing the definiendum is only one word that has implies the same attributes. An example of this would be "Wisdom"means understanding, because wisdom isnt exactly like understanding but they are closley related.
2. Etymological definition: gives meaning to a word by mentioning the words ancestry in its own language and other languages. Examples of this can be seen in English were many of our words have Greek, Latin, or French backgrounds. An example is the English word "license" which was derived from the Latin word licere meaning to be allowed or permitted.
3. Operational definition: give meaning to a word by specifying certian experimental procedures that determine whether or not the word can be applied towards it. Some examples would be: The solution is a "base" if the litmus paper put in it turns blue, The item is a "pure element" if it cannot be broken down any further molecularly. The main purpose of these definitions is to relate abstract thoughts or things to something more concrete.
4.Definition by genus and difference: gives a definition to a term by identifying it with a genus term and one or more difference words, that when combined convey the meaning of the term being defined. and example of this would be:
a) Species Difference Genus
"Daughter" means female offspring
"Rooster" means male chicken
"Basement" means underground structure

Definitional Techniques

Extensional(Denotative) definitions:
1) definition which gives meaning to a term by mentioning the group that the definiendum refers to either by pointing at them aka demonstrative(ostensive) definitions, naming them in a group(enumerative definitions), or just by indvidually naming them(definitions by subclass). Extensional definitions are used most often as a technique to create lexical and stipulative definitions.
a)Demonstrative(ostensive)definitions: the only thing needed to figure out this type of definition is by the message in what is being pointed at. An example would be, to define a "table" you would say "table" means this and this, and point at the tables. Demonstrative definitions stand apart from other types of definitions because their definiens are created some part with the action of pointing.
b)Enumerative definitions: give meaning to a word by naming those items, people, or places associated with the group being talked about. For example the term "actor" means a person such as Brad Pitt, George Clooney, Matt Damon, or Ben Affleck. The more examples given, the more satisfying this definition will be because it gives whoever is reading it a stronger affirmation, because it gives more examples to explain the definiendum.
c)Definition by subclass: gives meaning to a word by naming the subclasses of the group that the word refers to. In these types of definitions, they can be either partial or complete depending on whether or not they named all the subclasses in the group. For example "Candy" means chocolates, taffy, gum, and the like.

Persuasive Definitions

This kind of definition is used to create a positive or negative attitude toward what is stated by the definiendum. The way it does this is by attaching emotionally inclined meaning to a word to make it seem like the word really means this in the language its being used. Persuasive definitions are like the love child of the previous definitions, stipulant and lexical. This is because it can coin a new meaning for an old word(stipulative) and use it in a certain context to mean something else(Precising). A persuasive definitions main purpose is to influence the attitudes and beliefs of those reading them. These definitions can be judged true or false, but are not judged because when using persuasive definitions all that matters is its effectiveness. Some examples of persuasive definitions, one being negative the other positive, are:
1. "Abortion" means the ruthless murdering of innocent human beings.
2. "Liberal" means a genuine humanitarian commited to the goals of adequate housing and health care and of equal opportunity for all our citizens.

Theoretical Definitions

These are definitions that give meaning to a word by attaching it to a theory which gives it a distinct characteristic to the subject it symbolizes. By doing so it supplies a way of understanding the term defined because of the link it has with the subject, and in doing so can create a many different possibilities through the acknowledgement of this subject. An example of this given in our textbook is through the word "heat" and how it is used in accordance with the kinetic theory. "'Heat' means the energy associated with the random motion of the molecules of a substance." In defining the word this way, it not only proposes that the reason why the temperature increases is due to the fact molecules of the substance are speeding up, but also that this was experimented on thoroughly to get the results. It basically means taht this definition of heat was the stimulus behind the whole theory of heat. This form of definition is like its stipulant counterpart in they way that it can be neither true nor false. However the difference lies in the fact that theoretical definitions are considered proposals because they give the person using them a different way of analyzing the phenomenon, the example being heat, and since proposals have no truth value to them, neither can the theoritical definitions being used like proposals.

Precising Definitions

These definitions are used to try and decrease the ambiguity of a word. Precising definitions attempt to clear an expressions vagueness, which means that it isnt clearly or explicitly stated. Words such as rich and poor are conisdered vague because they dont really express a clear and definite meaning. However when put into the right context for example, if we say that the definition of "poor" is anybody making less than 4,000 dollars a year and is worth less than 20,000 dollars, then anybody could pinpoint what we mean by being poor in that context. Another example of precising definitions is by taking the lexical definition of a word, but using it towards a different discipline such as logic. An example would be the word formal, which in lexical terms could mean being dressed nicely or meeting the usual requirements. However in logic, formal means reasoning from known premises or premises prevoiusly assumed to be true, to the conclusion. Precising definitions differ from stipulative definitions because stipulative definitions are based solely on individual will or discretion. While precising definitions are subject to a great deal of rationality because it must ensure that the definition is correct for the context it is being used in.

Lexical Definitions

This kind of definition is used to show the meaning the word already has in the language. A very common example of this type of definition can be found in our dictionaries. Lexical Definitions differ from stipulative definitions, because they can either be true or false based on the context in whether or not the word is defined in the way it is used. Since words are many times used in different ways, lexical definitions are used to clear up any vagueness that could be caused if one of the words meanings were confused with another, which can create the logical fallacy of equivocation.

Stipulative Definitions

This kind of definition gives meaning to a word for the first time, either by creating a new word or giving a new meaning to an old word. A well known example is the word gay, which in the past meant happy, but now has been used to define homosexuals. An example of creating a new word can be seen at zoo's when they tried to name the offspring of a tiger and a lion. Since this kind of combonation could almost never happen in the wild, the zoo keeper never had to come up with a name for the offspring before. They decided to name the male offsprings ligers and the female ones tigons.

Definitions and Their Purposes

Every philosopher may differ in their views regarded the purpose of definitions, but Plato a well known philosopher born in 428 BC, believed that definitions were to interpret the meanings of non concrete forms such as justice. A definition can be defined as a group of words that give meaning to another word, and because of this each definition has two parts the Definiendum, which is the word that is going to be defiend, and the definiens the words which define it. An example is in the definition of "'Wolf', any of several large canivorous mamals of the genus Canis, of the dog family Canidae, esp C.Lupus, usually hunting in packs, formerly common throughout the Northern Hemisphere." So in this example the word "Wolf" is the definiendum and the words that followed describing wolf are its deiniens.

The Intension and Extension of Terms

The main task of logic is the evaluation of arguements. But there are many arguments in which the process of evaluation is the observation, " Well, that depends what you mean by.." The only way to clarify this problem is by giving a definition. Words are the basic units of language, and a Term, is any word or arrangement of words that may serve as the subject of a statement, Some examples of this are
Proper Names: Napoleon, McDonalds, Bill Clinton, The United States, California
Common Names: animal, house, activity, person, restitution
Descriptive Phrases: first president of the United States, Author of Harry Potter
However words that are not terms are stuff like verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and etc, and examples of these terms that wont work as terms are dictorial, run quickly, craves, and cabbages into again the forest, which is also an example of a nonsyntactic arrangement.

In the pervious chapter 2.1 they explored the cognitive meaning of language in general. The cognitive meaning of terms is made up of two kinds: Intensional and extensional.
1. Intensional meaning: is made of qualities or attributes that the term connotes, and connotes means to suggest or imply in addition to the dictionary definition. So an intensional meaning is one that has an implied meaning to the word. An example will be the word Dog, which consists of attributes including four legs, canines, and barking. Is also known as the inension or connotation of a term, which can also be related to sense.
2. Extensional meaning: is made of the members of the class that the term denotes, and denotes means to signify directly or refer to specifically. An example will be the word Dog again but will refer to Dogs themselves and all dogs in the universe. Also known as the extension or denotation, which can be also related to reference.

However there is a probelm with using connotations, because a dog lover may see dogs as cute and cuddly, while dog haters might see them as obnoxious, loud, and drooling. To solve this problem we use conventional connotation which includes the attributes that the term commonly promotes in the minds of people who speak the same languages. With the insight, that this is more or less the same from person to person and form time to time.

There is also a problem with the denoation of terms as well. For one if the term "a currently living dinosaur" or "the king of Mesopotamia" they were all once existing beings, however they have long since perished from our present. These are terms known as empty extension, and like the name implies these are words taht denote a null class, meaning a group or class with no memebers.

Varieties of Meaning

One of languages many uses is to communicate information and to express your feelings. This can be done through telling jokes, asking questions , or greeting a friend. Cognitive meaning is given to terms that communicate information, and the terms which express emotions are said to have emotive meaning. An example of both emotive and cognitive meaning can be seen in these two sentence:
The death penalty, which is legal in thirty-six states, has been carried out most often in Georgia; however, since 1977 Texas holds the record for the greatest number of executions.
The death penalty is a cruel and inuman form of punishment in which hapless prisoners are dragged from their cells and summarily slaughtered only to satiate the bloodlust of a vengeful public.
As you can see the words "cruel", "inhuman", and "hapless" and invoke a very emotional feeling, while the words "Georgia" and "record" are just use cognitively. However this example shows a very important issue in logic, which is that emotionally packed sentences can have both cognitive and emotive meanings. This being the reason why in logic we are only concerned about the cognitive meanings, because it makes it easier for us to seperate the meanings from each other. Also with cognitive meanings we can find the value claim, which basicaly states that something is better, worse, or right or wrong compared to something else.